Introduction of New Technology: HUMAN FACTORS

1. Definition of Human Factors
2. Who Needs to Know about Human factors?
• Designers
• IS Groups
• Managers
• Example of Lotus Notes
3. How to introduce New Technology: Conversion Stragies
• Direct Cutover
• Parallel Conversion
• Pilot Study
• Phased Approach
4. Where do we have to consider Human Factors
   • Ergonomics
   • Software Design
   • Some Questions
   • Sources
5. How are we considering Human Factors
• Major Goals and Motivations Behind Office Automation:
• Guidelines When Introducing a New Office system:
• Benefits/Disadvantages to Automation:
• Dimensions of an office (what makes up an office):
• Definition of an Office:
• Office Information Systems (OIS):
• Conclusion:
• Future of office automation (IEEE proceedings of 1983):

Definition of Human Factors

Human Factors and Ergonomics - fields which attempt to design technology specifically for human use and not for technology's sake. In system design, ergonomics attempts to make communication between the human processor and the computer processor easier for the human.

Who Needs to know about Human Factors?

1. Designers
   • Make software easy to use
   • If software hard to use then you won't have a job
   • "Who's going to buy a system that's hard to use?"
2. IS Groups
   • They install the software and manage it
   • They need to know how people react to the software
   • Train and help people with problems
3. Managers
   • How will new technology effect the company
   • How to improve company with technology
4. Example of Alpha Company (psuedo name)

   Groupware - Lotus Notes

   Citations taken from:
   
   Learning from Notes: Organizational Issues in Groupware Implementation
   by Wanda J. Orlikowski
   
   
   "some [people] have discussed the potential for such technologies to enhance organizational effectiveness, others have suggested that implementation of such technologies is more difficult and yields more unintended consequences than is typically acknowledged."
   
   "The findings suggest that two organizational elements seem especially relevant in influencing the effective utilization of groupware: people's cognitions or mental models about technology and their work, and the structural properties of the organization such as policies, norms, and rewards systems."
   
   "Recognizing the significant influence of these organizational elements appears critical to groupware developers, users, and researchers."

   
   

   Mental Models

   "When confronted with a new technology, individuals try to understand it in terms of their existing technological frames, often augmenting these frames to accommodate special aspects of the technology. If the technology is sufficiently different, however, these existing frames may be inappropriate, and individuals will need to significantly modify their technological frames in order to understand or interact effectively with new technology."
   
   When several individuals were asked about Lotus Notes before the installation here's how they responded:
   
   "I know absolutely nothing about Notes. I don't know what it is suppose to do"
   
   "It's big email"
   
   "Is it a new version of 1-2-3?"
   
   "Its a database housed somewhere in the center of the universe"
   
   "... [a person] is influenced by (i) the kind and amount of product information communicated to them, and (ii) the nature and form of training they receive on the product."
   
   "Weakly developed technological frames of a new and different technology are a significant problem in technology transfer because people act towards technology on the basis of the meaning it has for them.
   
   one manager is quoted as saying "...My first thought was -- How much is this costing me personally? ... [T]his kind of implementation affects all of our pocket books. ... I have [heard that] there is no value in information technology -- so you can imagine how I feel!"

   
   

   Structural Models

   "Structural properties of organizations encompass the reward systems, policies, work practices, and norms that shape and are shaped by everyday action of organizational members."

   Reward System

   "The opportunity costs for me to take training in the office are very high. At my level, every week is a deadline, every week is a crisis. No accommodations are made in our schedules or workload to allow us to train on technology. So I won't learn it unless it's mandatory"

   Policies & Procedures

   "I would be careful what I put out on Notes though. I like to retain personal control so that when people call me I can tell them not to use it for such and such. But there is no such control."
   "I'd be fearful that I'd put something out there and it was wrong and somebody would catch it"

   Work Norms

   "Usually managers work alone because of the competitiveness among the managers. There is a lot of one-upmanship against each other. Their life dream is to become a principal in Alpha, and they'll do anything to get there"
   "The atmosphere is competitive and cut-throat: all they want is to get ahead as individuals"

   Conclusion

   "This research suggests that in the early adoption of a technology, cognitive and structural elements play an important role in influencing how people think about and assess the value of the technology"

Conversion Strategies

There are many ways of introducing new technology. Each have their pros and cons and must be thoroughly reviewed before any introduction is done. What follows are a few methods.

1. Direct Cutover
   • existing technology is entirely replaced on a given day and time, with little chance of turning back in case of problems
   • PRO: users are forced to jump right in and use the new technology
   • CON: there is no backup to fall back on if errors are encountered
2. Parallel Conversion
   • new technology is run at the same time as the old technology until all bugs are eventually workeed out
   • PRO: the old technology can remain as a backup until all of the kinks have been worked out of the new technology and its use
   • CON: time and energy must be used to maintain the old technology
3. Pilot Study
   • new technology is introduced to one area only until all of the bugs have been worked out
   • after this the new technology replaces the old technology
   • PRO: problems are confined to one area
   • CON: a decision must be made on what area the new technology should be tested on. Problems encountered may harm the area chosen at any time, so it must be an area that can handle this stress.
4. Phased Approach
   • parts of the new technology are introduced in steps
   • gradually it will replace the old technology
   • PRO: a fairly easy way of introducing workers, etc. to this new technology
   • CON: this process does not work for all types of technology. It may be the case that the new technology cannot be broken in to parts.

Where We need to consider Human Factors

Ergonomics:

Erogonomics is considered during the design of hardware to reduce the risk that a user will get an Repetitive Stress/Strain Injury (RSI) or a Cumulative Trauma Disorder (CTD).

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome is an example of a Repetitive Stress Injury most likely caused by typing. The shape of a an old-style keyboard tends to force people to awkwardly bend their wrists. This awkward bending is referred to as ulnar deviation. When tpying with your wrists in this position, the tendons that connect your wrist to your fingers, which in turn allows you to move your fingers, rub together. This rubbing can irritate the sheaths which cover your tendons, allowing them to glide smoothly in your arm. Through repeated trauma, these sheaths swell and fill in the narrow opening which the tendons travel through, called the Carpal Tunnel. Not only does this restrict movement, but this swelling chokes the median nerve and the blood flow to this nerve, causing pain and, in some cases, even paralysis. Ergonomic keyboards are designed to keep the wrist in a more natural position, lessening the chances that this swelling will occur.

Change of technology is only one part in reducing the risks of injury. Other considerations are to reduce repetitive and sedentary tasks, making tasks more dynamic.

The numbers of injury claims at insurance companies for computer-related injuries have increased in the last decade, forcing businesses to take a closer look in to how hardware is designed.

Design Guidelines for Software Developement

1.Simple and natural dialogue

2.Speak the users' language

3.Minimize user memory load

4.Be consistent

5.Provide feedback

6.Provide clearly marked exits

7.Provide shortcuts

8.Deal with errors in positive and helpful manner

9.Provide help and documentation

Questions:

How should the new Web PCs be introduced to the home?

Will color and style eventually become an important part of introducing technology to the World?

Sources:

Laudon, Kenneth C. and Jane Price,. Information Systems: A problem solving approach. 3rd Ed. Fort Woth: The Dryden Press, 1995. Pp. 348-9.

Bridger, R. S. Introduction to Ergonomics. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1995.

How are we now considering human factors with the introduction of new technology?

Major Goals and Motivations Behind Office Automation:

• Improve performance
• Quality of life
• Higher morale
• Corporate and organizational needs
• End-user (individual) needs
• Technological availability

Guidelines When Introducing a New Office system:

• Make sure there is a need
  • Reduce costs, prepare for the future, improve efficiency, and/or improve work conditions.
• Ensure commitment at the highest level in the organization at the very start
  • Make sure the management is for the changes because changes will effect them.
• Ensure adequate financial and administrative support
  • Must have a smooth transition or people will go back to the old ways.
• Involve all key parties at the earliest possible stage
  • Get the users input on what they need. Provides them with a sense of belonging.
• Establish goals
  • Know what the system is expected to do.
• Maximize awareness
  • Let everyone know about the changes. Provide training, and information on the changes.
• Analyze the nature of the problem
  • As the system is developed learn what works and what doesn't work.
• Anticipate the spread of effect
  • Identify where problems are going to arise.
• Identify the effects on job security, payment systems and career opportunities
  • "Resistance to change" can be combated by providing knowledge to the users.
• Assess the time scale of the changes realistically
  • Be realistic on the time restraints of a major project. Little problems can add unwanted time to a project.
• Take account of laws and regulations and consider technology agreements
  • Know what laws may effect your system eg. Site licensees.
• Plan for the changes
  • Develop an action plan on how the system will be implemented.
• Select technically appropriate equipment
  • Use technology that can handle the load you are going to place on the system.
• Attend to the needs of different user groups
  • Make it configurable to the needs of advanced and novice users. Understand the training required for the different users.
• Implement the changes
• Monitor and evaluate the changes
• Modify the program for introducing the systems as necessary

Benefits/Disadvantages to Automation:

• Technology alters jobs
• Gains are Elusive as Equipment Advances
• Phantom Efficiency
• Technology: no guarantee of improvement

Dimensions of an office (what makes up an office):

• Geographical
  • Were it is.
• Physical
  • What you actually do.
• Temporal
  • Hours of work.
• Activity
  • What you do.
• Structural
  • The management structure.
• Spatial
  • Relation to other workers.
• Economic
  • What your organization is driven by
• Social
  • What motivates the people in the organization.
• etc.

Definition of an Office:

"The concept of the office can be seen as one of the most consistent threads in any culture for systems of government and manufacture may change beyond recognition but in any organization of human beings which extends beyond the smallest group, the word "office" and the ideas it represents, emerge as stable components of language"

(Delgado)

Office Information Systems (OIS):

1. Meet with the office manager
   • Organizational context and reporting relationships
   • Functions and resources of the office
   • Identification of conceptual objects and procedures
   • Identification of key personnel
2. Produce initial procedure descriptions
   • Conceptual objects
   • Core procedure steps and major alternate control paths
   • Inputs and outputs
   • Databases
   • Environment and special equipment
3. Develop and analyze a draft description
   • Examine for inconsistency and incompleteness
   • Construct list of exception possibilities
4. Iterate the interview process
   • Circulate draft description
   • Resolve conflicts and ambiguities
   • Investigate exception-handling procedures
   • Watch for ad hoc decision making
5. Review the analysis with the manager
   • Validate intentions behind each procedure
   • Clarify what happens at interfaces with other offices
   • General exception handling
6. Finalize the office description

Conclusion:

If a technical system causes changes that do not contribute directly to business success and/or it reduces job satisfaction, this system should not have been introduced.

Future of office automation (IEEE proceedings of 1983):

• The white collar worker in 1990 will be a multifunctional worker who:
  • Will communicate and interact with other multifunctional workers more often and over various mediums (voice, image, text, video; both interactive and non-interactive)
  • Will be highly mobile (away from their desks or offices) and will often work at home
  • Will perform tasks requiring greater insight and creativity
  • Will perform repetitive tasks much less frequently than today
  • Technology base will continue to expand
• Two views on the future of the route society is taking:
  • Sees the future in terms of more advanced technology, more affluence, more leisure, and more specialism with strong moves towards service as major employers of labor.
  • Small units, decentralization, many home-based industries and a more socially aware and caring society.